Studies on Dyes
Last update: 2/7/2008
RED
FD&C Red No. 40 - Allura Red
FD&C Red No. 3 - Erythrosine- DNA damage induced by red food dyes orally administered to pregnant and male mice. Tsuda S, et al, Toxicol Sci 2001, May;61(1):92-9
"We determined the genotoxicity of synthetic red tar dyes (amaranth - Red 2, allura red - Red 40, acid red - #106, new coccine - No. 18) currently used as food color additives in many countries, including Japan. …The assay was positive in the colon 3 hours after the administration of ama-ranth and allura red and weakly positive in the lung 6 hours after the administration of amaranth. Acid red did not induce DNA damage in any sample at any sampling time. …The 3 dyes induced DNA damage in the colon starting at 10 mg/kg. …6.5 mg/10 ml of new coccine induced DNA damage in colon, glandular stomach, and bladder….the 3 azo additives we examined induced colon DNA damage at very low doses.
- Reproductive and neurobehavioral toxicity study of erythrosine (Red 3) administered to mice in the diet. Tanaka T, Food Chem Toxicol 2001 May;39(5):447-54
"Erythrosine was given in the diet to provide levels of 0 (control), 0.005, 0.015 and 0.045% from 5 weeks of age of the F(0) generation to 9 weeks of age of the F(1) generation in mice, and selected reproductive and neurobehavioral parameters were measured. . .In movement activities of exploratory behaviour, several parameters were significantly changed in the high dose group, and those effects were dose-related in adult females in the F(0) and F(1) generations and in male offspring in the F(1) generation."
- Estrogenic and DNA-damaging activity of Red No. 3 in human breast cancer cells. Dees C, et al, Environ Health Perspect 1997 Apr;105 Suppl 3:625-32
"Exposure to pesticides, dyes, and pollutants that mimic the growth promoting effects of estrogen may cause breast cancer. …Red No. 3 increased binding of the ER from MCF-7 cells to the estrogen responsive element. Consumption of Red No. 3, which has estrogenlike growth stimulatory properties and may be genotoxic, could be a significant risk factor in human breast carcinogenesis."
- A study on the reproductive toxicity of erythrosine (Red No. 3) in male mice. Abdel Aziz AH, et al, Pharmacol Res 1997 May:35(5):457-62
"The potential adverse effects of erythrosine (ER FD&C Red No. 3) on the spermatogenesis process were investigated in adult mice. . . sperm count as well as the percentage of motile sperms were significantly inhibited by about 50% and 57% respectively. Moreover. . .it increased the incidence of sperms with abnormal head by about 57% and 65% respectively. The induced increase in sperm abnormalities could enhance the spermatogenetic dysfunction and germ cell mutagenicity. These findings indicate that ER with used doses has a potential toxic effect on spermatogenesis in mice and in turn, it may affect its testicular function and reproductive performance."
- Developmental toxicity and psychotoxicity of FD and C red dye No 40 (allura red AC) in rats. Vorhees, CV, et al, Toxicology 1983;28(3):207-17
"Adult Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets containing FD and C red dye No. 40 for 2 weeks and were then bred. The diets were continued for the females throughout gestation and lactation and were provided continuously to the offspring thereafter. Red 40 significantly reduced reproductive success, parental and offspring weight, brain weight, survival, and female vaginal patency development. Behaviorally, Red 40 produced substantially decreased running wheel activity, and slightly increased post-weaning open-field rearing activity. Overall, R40 produced evidence of both physical and behavioral toxicity in developing rats at doses up to 10% of the diet."
- Neurotransmitter Release from a Vertebrate Neuromuscular Synapse Affected by a Food Dye. Augustine G, Levitan H, Science Magazine, March 28, 1980, Vol. 207, pp. 1489-90
". . .FD&C No. 3 . . .produced an irreversible, dose-dependent increase in neurotransmitter release. . . These results suggest that erythrosine might provide a useful pharmacological tool for studying the process of transmitter release, but that its use as a food additive should be re-examined."
- Erythrosine B inhibits dopamine transport in rat caudate synaptosomes. Lafferman JA, Silbergeld EK, Science 1979 205:410-412 Erythrosin B is a member of a class of fluorescein dyes that are suggested to elicit hyperkinesis when ingested by susceptible children. We found that erythrosin B inhibits dopamine uptake . . . Erythrosin B also decreased nonsaturable binding of dopamine to the synaptosome membrane. The inhibitory action of erythrosin B on dopamine uptake is consistent with the hypothesis that erythrosin B can act as a central excitatory agent able to induce hyperkinetic behavior.
YELLOW
FD&C Yellow No. 5 - Tartrazine
FD&C Yellow No. 6 - Sunset Yellow
- Immumological aspects of the common food colorants, amaranth and tartrazine. Koutsogeorgopoulou L, et al, Vet Hum Toxicol 1998 Feb;40(1):1-4
"We described . . . the cytotoxic and immunosuppressive effects of food colorants such as amaranth and tartrazine. . . The results showed clear immunosuppressive effects from the 2 substances tested, although the concentrations chosen for this study provide to be non-cytotoxic."
- Reproductive and neurobehavioral effects of Sunset Yellow FCF administered to mice in their diet. Tanka T, Toxicol Ind Health 1996 Jan-Feb;12(1):69-79
- Synthetic Food Coloring and Behavior: A Dose Response Effect in a Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Repeated-Measures Study, Rowe KS, Rowe KJ, Journal of Pediatrics November 1994 Vol. 135, pp.691-8
"This study demonstrated a functional relation between the ingestion of a synthetic food color (tartrazine) and behavioral changes in 24 atopic children, aged 2 to 14 years, with marked reactions being observed at all six dosage levels of dye challenge."
- Intolerance to Dietary Chemicals May Underlie Recurrent Headaches, Cornwell N, et al, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney Austrialia.
"In a study of dietary chemical sensitivities in 26 patients subject to recurrent idiopathic headaches, all but four of the patients experienced a marked reduction in the frequency and severity of headaches by adhering to a diet devoid of monosodium glutamate, amines, tartrazine (Yellow No. 5) preservatives, yeasts, nitrites/nitrates and salicylate."
- Controlled Trial of Oligoantigenic Treatment in the Hyperkinetic Syndrome, Egger J, Graham PJ, Carter CM, Gumley D, Soothill JF, The Lancet March 9, 1985
"76 selected overactive children were treated with an oligoantigenic diet. 62 improved, and a normal range of behaviour was achieved in 21 of these. Other symptoms such as headaches, abdominal pain, and fits, also often improved…. Artificial colorants (Yellow No. 5) and preservatives were the commonest provoking substances, but no child was sensitive to these alone."
- Danger! Additives at Work. London Food Commission. London 1985.
FD&C Yellow No. 6 (Sunset Yellow) was found to be a carcinogen when fed to animals.
- The influence of the chemical additive tartrazine on the zinc status of hyperactive children: A double-blind placebo-controlled study. Ward NI; Soulsbury KA; Zettel VH; Colquhoun ID; Bunday S; Barnes B; J Nutr Med;1(1). 1990 51-58
ALL FOOD DYES
- Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial.
McCann D, et al. Lancet, September 6, 2007 on line.
"Artificial colours or a sodium benzoate preservative (or both) in the diet result in increased hyperactivity in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the general population."
- Synergistic Interactions Between Commonly Used Food Additives in a Developmental Neurotoxicity Test. Lau K, et al. Toxicol Sci. 2006 Mar;90(1):178-87.
Lau found that combining additives led to a much greater effect than expected on developing neurons. He said, "Inhibition of neurite outgrowth was found at concentrations of additives theoretically achievable in plasma by ingestion of a typical snack and drink."
- The effects of a double blind, placebo controlled, artificial food colourings and benzoate preservative challenge on hyperactivity in a general population sample of preschool children., Bateman B et al, Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2004 Jun;89(6):506-11
". . . there were significantly greater increases in hyperactive behaviour during the active than the placebo period based on parental reports. . . .CONCLUSIONS: There is a general adverse effect of artificial food colouring and benzoate preservatives on the behaviour of 3 year old children . . . "
- Food Additives are Common Causes of the Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder in Children. Boris M, Mandel F, Annals of Allergy, May 1994.
". . .this double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge study supports the role of dietary factors in ADHD (including dyes). Through a simple elimination diet symptoms can be controlled."
- Behavioral responses to artificial food colors, Weiss B, et al., Science, March 28, 1980 207:1487-1488
- Food Dyes Impair Performance of Hyperactive Children on a Laboratory Learning Test, Swanson J, Kinsbourne M, Science, March 238, 1980, Vol. 207. pp. 1485-7.
"The performance of the hyperactive children on paired-associate learning tests on the day they received the dye blend was impaired relative to their performance after they received the placebo, but the performance of the non-hyperactive group was not affected by the challenges. . ."